AT T Case Study

Table of Contents Introduction Models preceding RBV The roots of the RBV Application of RBV to the field of HRM Key Elements of the RBV Conclusion Reference List Introduction There is an agreement that human capital can be a basis of competitive advantage; that human resource practices are more influential on the human resource part of the firm; and that the complex nature of HR systems of practice can enhance the inimitability of the system. Human resources belong to a firm’s most valuable assets (Hendry Pettigrew, 1986, p. 3).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on AT T Case Study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the past few decades, there has been an upsurge on the body of literature focusing on creating sustained competitive advantage for organizations through the development of core competences, tacit knowledge, and dynamic capabilities. Reflecting on these literatures, it can be concluded that the resource-based view has become one of the dominate theories in debate on strategic HRM and on how human resources and related HR practices can have an effect on firm performance (Barney, 2001, p. 42). Models preceding RBV Resource-based view led to a change in strategic management thinking from an ‘outside-in’ approach – with an emphasis on external, industry-based competitive issues to an ‘inside-out’ approach, in which internal resources constitute the starting point for understanding organizational success (Wright, Dunford Snell, 2001, p. 701). During the 1980s, the main developments in analyzing strategy emphasized on the relationship between strategy and the outside environment. A befitting example on such studies is an analysis done by Michael Porter who analyzed the structure of the industry and competitive positioning (Boxall, 1996, p. 59). However, the link between strategy and the organization’s resources and skills has been neglec ted in research. Most research focusing on strategic implications of the inside environment of a company has focused on matters pertaining the implementation of strategy and how to analyze the firm process through which strategies come up. Recently, there has been a revival of attention in the role of the firm’s resources as the basis for firm strategy (Bowen Ostroff, 2004, p. 203). The roots of the RBV The resource-based view roots go back to the mid-twentieth century when the value and quality of human resources in terms of knowledge and experience. In essence, RBV offers a critique of the dominant models of the 1980s, in particular, the model of Michael Porter. Porter-like approaches make implicit heroic assumptions about the cleverness of the leadership team and their ability to make efficient choices and the relative naivetà © of cultural changes within a firm (Hendry Pettigrew, 1986, p. 5). Porter’s framework of industry analysis and resulting competitive stra tegies focus on the relevance of the external environment, which also makes part of the early HR strategic models.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The outside-in approaches put a lot of emphasis on the external analysis in terms of opportunities and threats, while the inside-out approach focuses on the internal analysis and the strengths and weaknesses of the organizations. This shift in strategic management has had significant implications in the field of HRM (Barney, 2001, p. 46). Sustained competitive advantage is determined by resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable. These are the qualities of desirable resources. These resources can be distinguished in financial resources in terms of equity, debt and retained earnings, physical resources like machines and factories, human resources in terms of experience, intelligence and wisdom associated w ith the firm, and organizational resources such as teamwork, trust, systems, organizational design, management information systems and budgeting techniques (Wright, Dunford Snell, 2001, p. 706). There are three reasons as to why firm resources can be imperfectly imitable. The first reason is the ability of the firm to obtain a resource depends on unique historical conditions (path dependency) (Bowen Ostroff, 2004, p. 205). Secondly, the link between the resources owned by the company and a firm’s sustained competitive advantage is causally ambiguous (causal ambiguity); and thirdly, the resources generating a firm’s advantage is socially complex (social complexity) (Barney, 2001, p. 47). Path dependency captures the idea that valuable resources are developed and the fact that their competitive success does not simply come from making choices in the present, but have theory origin and starting point in a chain of events, incidents, and choices in the past. This chain o f events and managerial choices over time, in combination with the complexity of social interactions of actors involved, form the basis of the second barrier to imitation according to RBV: social complexity (Wright, Dunford Snell, 2001, p. 710). Unique networks of internal and external connections are natural barriers for imitation by rivals. The third type of barrier in RBV is causal ambiguity; it is difficult for people who have not been involved in the decision-making process to assess the specific cause-effect relationships in organizations (Boxall, 1996, p. 64).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on AT T Case Study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Application of RBV to the field of HRM The resource-based view when applied to the field of HRM posits that it is people who encompass the properties of value because they contribute to firm efficiency or effectiveness; rarity, since they are not widely available, ini mitability, as they cannot be easily replicated by competitors; and non-substitutability, given that other resources cannot fulfill the same function. The above qualities are the necessary conditions for organizational success (Barney, 2001, p. 49). The RBV focuses on competitive advantage from the perspective of inimitable human resources that are less visible or transparent, in contrast with, for example, technological, technological, and physical resources. In addition, the RBV emphasizes the complexity of organizational systems in determining competitive advantage, related to the bundles and systems approach to HRM research. Furthermore, the RBV is concerned with sustained competitive advantage or profitability at the firm level, whereas other theoretical frameworks focus on behavioral outcomes or internal efficiency issues (Hendry Pettigrew, 1986, p. 6). The fundamental explanation to the resource-based view is relatively straightforward. It begins with the presumption that th e top management of a firm desires for the company to have a sustained competitive advantage (SCA). A company that attains an SCA is able to earn economic rents or returns that are above average. In turn, emphasis is laid on the means by which organizations attain and sustain advantages (Boxall, 1996, p. 67). The resource-based view holds that the solution to this is through possession of certain principal resources. These resources, in return, should also have precise features of value, inimitability (Wright, Dunford Snell, 2001, p. 715). A sustained competitive advantage can be obtained if the company uses these major resources in its product markets. Therefore, the RBV focuses mainly on strategic choice, holding the company’s management responsible for crucial roles of identification, development, and use of major resources to make the most of returns (Barney, 2001, p. 50). Key Elements of the RBV The essential elements of the resource-based view are sustainable competiti ve advantage and superior performance; key resources; and strategic choices by management. Each of these components is discussed below. Despite its various definitions, strategy entails an attempt by a firm to achieve and sustain competitive advantage in relation to other firms (Hendry Pettigrew, 1986, p. 7).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Although the notion of competitive advantage remains central to the strategy literature, clear definitions of the concept are rare. Advantage can be viewed as a relative concept. In other words, advantage is deemed meaningful only when compared to another entity or set of entities (Barney, 2001, p. 48). Advantages are relative to an arena or context, and that what counts for an advantage in one contest may not be so in another, and, indeed, be a disadvantage. A competitive advantage, therefore; is a merit that one company has over its competitor in a particular market, or even an industry (Bowen Ostroff, 2004, p. 221). The resource-based view argues that advantages can be sustainable if they are derived from key resources possessing certain characteristics. These features include inimitability, rarity, and non-substitutability. Concisely, a firm’s resources are a source of sustainable competitive if they possess the three characteristics of market value and barriers to dupli cation (Boxall, 1996, p. 70). The second element of resource-based view is identifying key resources. The current literature is replete with discussion that attributes the superior performance of firms to strengths such as customer service excellence, design capability, managerial expertise and teamwork. At any given, an organization is likely to have a wide range of resources at its disposal (Hendry Pettigrew, 1986, p. 8). From a resource-based perspective, the normative challenge facing firms is to identify and deploy those resources that meet the characteristics earlier in this essay. Resources can be divided into three principal groups: tangible assets, intangible assets and capabilities. Tangible assets are those assets in a firm, both current and fixed that have long-run capacity. In addition, these assets are transparent and weak at resisting duplication. Intangible assets, on the other hand, are particularly pronounced in industries such as pharmaceuticals, consumer goods i ndustries, and service firms where company reputation is critical. These assets have relatively unlimited capacity (Barney, 2001, p. 47). Firms possessing intangible assets can leverage their value by using them in house, renting them, or selling them. These assets are relatively resistant to duplication efforts by competitors due to their regulatory of position gaps or differentials. Capabilities are skills that the company. The firm manager has a role of converting resources into valuable products for customers (Bowen Ostroff, 2004, p. 208). The initial task facing mangers is to try to identify the resources possessing the potential to generate sustainable competitive advantage. In order to do this, resources must provide potential access to a wide variety of markets; are relevant to the key buying criteria of customers; and they are difficult to imitate (Boxall, 1996, p. 72). Conclusion The resource-based view posits that the firm’s management ream assumes responsibility for identifying, developing, protecting and deploying value-generating resources. Given the practical difficulties of these tasks, good-quality top management in itself can possibly exhibit the characteristics of a key resource. The resources and capabilities of an organization are the main factors in formulating strategy (Barney, 2001, p. 51). They are the basic constants upon which a company can establish its identity and frame its strategy, and they are the chief sources of the firm’s profitability. The key to a resource-based view to strategy formulation is the comprehension of the links between resources, capabilities, competitive advantage, and profitability- especially, comprehending the mechanisms through which competitive advantage can be sustained over time (Bowen Ostroff, 2004, p. 215). This calls for the design of strategies that explain to maximum effect each firm’s unique characteristics. Reference List Barney, J 2001, ‘Is the resource-based view a useful perspective for strategic management research? Yes’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 26 no.1, pp. 41-56. Bowen, D, Ostroff, C 2004, ‘Understanding HRM-Firm Performance Linkages: The role of the ‘Strength’ of the HRM System’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 29 no. 2, pp. 203-221. Boxall, P 1996, ‘The strategic HRM debate and the resource-based view of the firm’, Human Resource Management Journal, vol. 6 no. 30, pp. 59-75. Hendry, C, Pettigrew, A 1986, ‘The practice of strategic human resource management’, Personnel Review, vol. 15 no. 5, pp. 3-8. Wright, P, Dunford, B, Snell, S 2001, ‘Human resources and the resource based view of the firm’, Journal of Management, vol. 27 no. 6, pp. 701-721. This essay on AT T Case Study was written and submitted by user Shaniya O. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Effects of HIV Mutations on the Immune System Essays - HIVAIDS

The Effects of HIV Mutations on the Immune System Essays - HIVAIDS The Effects of HIV Mutations on the Immune System Science C.J. Stimson INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the host's chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to read that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body - the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to almost normal concentrations. It is at this time the virus enters its second stage. Throughout this second phase the immune system functions well, and the net concentration of measurable virus remains relatively low. But after a period of time, the viral level rises gradually, in parallel with a decline in the helper population. These helper T and

A2 EXCEL DRAFT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

A2 EXCEL DRAFT - Assignment Example These figures provided the basis for calculation of the individual employee earnings, contributions and benefits as well as the FICA deductions. To provide a cost benefit analysis, both the expenditures incurred by the department and the benefits translated to savings must be computed. The personnel based expenditures include the salaries and wages and Employee benefits contributed by the department. Values for these two items are obtained from the 2014 adopted budget. The company is obliged to make social security contribution of 6.2% and Medicare contribution of 1.45% of the salaries and wages respectively. Additionally, each employee is given a retirement related benefit of 7.5% of salaries and wages. Once these figures are calculated, the recurring costs, one-time costs and recurring savings are calculated based on the assumptions that the pilot experiment will run for a transition period of six months and involves 5 employees only. Additionally, the experiment will be projected for a period of five years after the transitional period. This eventually provides values for present value of costs and the present value of benefits that are then used to calculate the net present Value and the Benefit/cost ratio. Essentially, the figures used for the calculations were obtained from the adopted budget for the county for the 2014 financial year. According to the report the human resource department has a staff FTE of 14, calculated salaries and wages of $993,967 and employee benefits amounting to $255,692. These figures are used to derive the employee benefits, FICA tax withholdings, social security and Medicare contributions. Social security is computed by multiplying 6.2% (rate of withholding) by the salaries and wages. On the other hand the Medicare contributions are calculated by multiplying the salaries and wages by a withholding rate of 1.45%. It is important to note that all categories of deductions (contributions by employer) except